Drug-Induced Gingival Overgrowth-Molecular Aspects of Drug Actions.

Drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) is one of the side effects produced by therapeutic agents, most commonly phenytoin, nifedipine and cyclosporin A. However, the precise mechanism of DIGO is not entirely understood. A literature search of the MEDLINE/PubMed databases was conducted to identify the mechanisms involved in DIGO. The available information suggests that the pathogenesis of DIGO is multifactorial, but common pathogenic sequelae of events emerge, i.e., sodium and calcium channel antagonism or disturbed intracellular handling of calcium, which finally lead to reductions in intracellular folic acid levels. Disturbed cellular functions, mainly in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, result in increased collagen and glycosaminoglycans accumulation in the extracellular matrix. Dysregulation of collagenase activity, as well as integrins and membrane receptors, are key mechanisms of reduced degradation or excessive synthesis of connective tissue components. This manuscript describes the cellular and molecular factors involved in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and extracellular matrix remodeling triggered by agents producing DIGO.

Cyclosporine A-induced gingival overgrowth in renal transplant patients accompanied by epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between the prevalence of cyclosporin A-induced gingival overgrowth and the expression of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition factors in the gingival tissues of renal transplant patients. BACKGROUND: Gingival overgrowth (GO) is a frequent complication in organ transplant patients treated with the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A (CsA). The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is considered a factor contributing to CsA-induced GO. However, current knowledge on this topic is sparse. METHODS: Sixty-three renal transplant patients were divided into two groups according to the occurrence of GO: those with gingival overgrowth (GO+ group) and those without gingival overgrowth (GO- group). Data on age, sex, and use of immunosuppressant and calcium channel blocker medications, serum creatinine values, peak concentrations of blood CsA, and gingival hyperplasia scores were recorded to identify clinically pathogenic factors. Gingival tissues from five patients with CsA-induced GO and five healthy subjects were selected for histomorphological observation with hematoxylin-eosin staining, Masson staining, and immunohistochemical staining. The mRNA expression of EMT factors was detected with reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. RESULTS: The use of CsA significantly increased the prevalence of GO in renal transplant patients. The expression of α-SMA, SMAD4, and TGM2 was upregulated and that of E-cadherin was downregulated in the gingival tissues of patients with CsA-induced GO compared with those of the corresponding controls. CONCLUSION: Treatment with CsA is closely related to the occurrence of GO in renal transplant patients and EMT plays an important role in CsA-induced gingival tissue hyperplasia.

Enhancement of receptor-mediated calcium responses by phenytoin through the suppression of calcium excretion in human gingival fibroblasts.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Gingival overgrowth caused by phenytoin is proposed to be associated with Ca2+ signaling; however, the mechanisms that increase the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+ ]i ) are controversial. The current study aimed to elucidate the mechanism underlying the phenytoin-induced increase in [Ca2+ ]i in human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs). METHODS: Effects of 100 µM phenytoin on [Ca2+ ]i in HGFs were examined at the single-cell level using fluorescence images of fura-2 captured by an imaging system consisting of an EM-CCD camera coupled to an inverted fluorescence microscope at room temperature. RESULTS: Exposure of HGFs to 100 µM phenytoin induced a transient increase in [Ca2+ ]i in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ , indicating that the phenytoin-induced increase in [Ca2+ ]i does not require an influx of extracellular Ca2+ . In addition, phenytoin increased [Ca2+ ]i in HGFs depleted of intracellular Ca2+ stores by thapsigargin, indicating that neither Ca2+ release from stores nor inhibition of Ca2+ uptake is involved. Furthermore, the phenytoin-induced [Ca2+ ]i elevation was reduced to 18.8% in the absence of extracellular Na+ , and [Ca2+ ]i elevation upon removal of extracellular Na+ was reduced to 25.9% in the presence of phenytoin. These results imply that phenytoin increases [Ca2+ ]i of HGFs by suppressing the Na+ /Ca2+ exchanger. Suppression of intracellular Ca2+ excretion is thought to enhance the Ca2+ responses induced by various stimuli. Analysis at the single-cell level showed that stimulation with 1 µM ATP or 3 µM histamine increased [Ca2+ ]i in 20-50% of cells, and [Ca2+ ]i increased in many unresponsive cells in the presence of phenytoin. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that phenytoin induced increase in [Ca2+ ]i by the inhibition of Ca2+ efflux in HGFs. It was also found that phenytoin strongly enhanced small Ca2+ responses induced by stimulation with a low concentration of ATP or histamine by inhibiting Ca2+ efflux. These findings suggest a possibility that phenytoin causes drug-induced gingival overgrowth by interacting with inflammatory bioactive substances in the gingiva.

Cyclosporine-induced gingival overgrowth-Review.

Drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) is an undesirable effect resulting from the therapy of one of the three groups of drugs: phenytoin, calcium channel blockers, and cyclosporine A (CsA). It is caused by a fibrous overgrowth leading to gingivitis, periodontitis, and even tooth loss. Possible consequences include tooth decay worsening, pain and difficulty in eating, bleeding gums, and bad breath. The pathomechanism of the hypertrophy is unknown, but there is a correlation between insufficient oral hygiene and the severity of this phenomenon. The gender and age predilection of gingival hyperplasia as a result of CsA therapy is also noticeable. It is most common in children and adolescents of the male sex. The beneficial effect of the removal of tartar and local irritants in reducing the above symptoms has been demonstrated. One of the treatments for DIGO is conventional gingivectomy. The paper is a review article about cyclosporine-induced gingival hyperplasia.

Phenytoin induces connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2) production through NADPH oxidase 4-mediated latent TGFß1 activation in human gingiva fibroblasts: Suppression by curcumin.

OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND: Gingival overgrowth (GO) is a common side effect of some drugs such as anticonvulsants, immunosuppressant, and calcium channel blockers. Among them, the antiepileptic agent phenytoin is the most common agent related to this condition due to its high incidence. Transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) importantly contributes to the pathogenesis of GO. Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF or CCN2) is a key mediator of tissue fibrosis and is positively associated with the degree of fibrosis in GO. We previously showed that Src, c-jun N-terminal kinase, and Smad3 mediate TGFß1-induced CCN2 protein expression in human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs). This study investigates whether phenytoin can induce CCN2 synthesis through activated latent TGFß in HGFs and its mechanisms. METHODS: CCN2 synthesis, latent TGFß1 activation, and cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in HGFs were studied using western blot analysis, a TGFß1 Emax® ImmunoAssay System, and 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (an oxidation-sensitive fluorescent probe), respectively. RESULTS: Phenytoin significantly stimulated CCN2 synthesis, latent TGFß1 activation, and ROS generation in HGFs. Addition of an TGFß-neutralizing antibody, TGFß receptor kinase inhibitor SB431542, and Smad3 inhibitor SIS3 completely inhibited phenytoin-induced CCN2 synthesis. General antioxidant N-acetylcysteine, NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor diphenylene iodonium, and specific NOX4 inhibitor plumbagin almost completely suppressed phenytoin-induced total cellular ROS and latent TGFß1 activation. Curcumin dose-dependently decreased phenytoin-induced TGFß1 activation and CCN2 synthesis in HGFs. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicated that NOX4-derived ROS play pivotal roles in phenytoin-induced latent TGFß1 activation. Molecular targeting the phenytoin/NOX4/ROS/TGFß1 pathway may provide promising strategies for the prevention and treatment of GO. Curcumin-inhibited phenytoin-induced CCN2 synthesis is caused by the suppression of latent TGFß1 activation.

Bibliometric analysis of research trends and characteristics of drug-induced gingival overgrowth.

Objectives: Drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) is a frequent adverse medication reaction that is generally caused by cyclosporine, phenytoin, and nifedipine, which belong to the category of immunosuppressants, anticonvulsants, and calcium channel blockers, respectively. This bibliometric analysis aims to depict the main citation characteristics and analyze the research trends in DIGO investigations. Methods: An exhaustive search was performed in the Scopus database to create the bibliometric list of DIGO in the syntax. Furthermore, the information related to the number of citations, drugs related to DIGO, study topic and design, authorship, publication year, journal, contributing institution, country of origin, and the department was extracted. Results: In total, 399 papers on DIGO were retrieved in this study. The total number of citations and that after the removal of self-citations were 7,814 and 7,314, respectively. The mean number of citations was 19.6 in a range of 0-608. The main paper types were articles (76.94%) and reviews (19.55%). A remarkable increasing trend in the number of citations has been observed since 1994. Cyclosporine (44.89%) is the most commonly used drug that shares a close relationship with DIGO, followed by phenytoin (18.22%), nifedipine (17.93%), and amlodipine (6.81%). The review (27.82%) type constituted the most widely used design in the DIGO studies. According to the top 20 keywords, the risk factors and pathogenesis of DIGO have been prominent topics of research works for several years. Conclusions: This bibliometric analysis will facilitate the understanding of researchers and clinicians, especially those at the beginning of their careers in periodontology on DIGO, by identifying landmark research and providing an overview of this field.

Role of histopathology in the management of the gingival enlargement in a patient on antihypertensive therapy based on calcium channel blockers: a case report.

Periodontal pathology is often represented by increases in gingival volume, with pronounced inflammatory phenomena. These manifestations require a more accurate diagnosis and knowledge of the etiopathogenic factors involved. The periodontal treatment applied must be related with the etiopathogenic circumstances. Periodontal disease sometimes has a complex appearance, with intertwined local and systemic favorable factors that make it difficult to include it in a certain taxonomic form. Also, in general, the adult patients have associated chronic diseases that involve the administration of several drugs, which induce on long-term both therapeutic and side effects. Furthermore, diseases in the oral cavity may occur frequently, which require complex and associated dental and periodontal treatment, also occlusal rebalancing, which is a real interdisciplinary challenge. In this case report, periodontal status is determined by a combination of local and systemic favorable factors. However, the histopathological analysis of the gingival samples revealed inflammation without characteristic fibrous hyperplasia changes of the Amlodipine calcium channel blocker (CCB) administration, the antihypertensive medication of the patient. Thus, Amlodipine does not have a hyperplasic effect on gingival mucosa in all cases. Therefore, even if they are more expensive, investigations must be complex, if necessary, in establishing the involvement of the side effect of the systemic medication in periodontal pathological changes. CCB systemic medication is essential, even vital, for maintain the arterial pressure at normal values, should not be altered without the real indication and to the recommendation from a specialist doctor, and the periodontal treatment must be focused to eliminate the local factors.

Gingival enlargement improvement following medication change from amlodipine to benidipine and periodontal therapy.

The use of calcium channel blockers (CCBs) is associated with gingival enlargement, which adversely affects oral function, hygiene and aesthetics. Although CCB-induced gingival enlargement is a known adverse effect, it is rarely or never caused by some CCBs. In this paper, we report the case of a late 80's female patient with hypertension who experienced amlodipine-induced gingival enlargement. The patient's antihypertensive medication was changed from amlodipine to another CCB of the same class, benidipine, which has not been reported to cause gingival enlargement. The patient also received periodontal therapy. A significant improvement in gingival enlargement was noted, and blood pressure control was maintained. This case indicates that it might be beneficial for patients with hypertension presenting CCB-induced gingival enlargement to switch from the CCB that caused gingival enlargement to another CCB with little to no risk.

Prevention and non-surgical periodontal therapy of calcium channel blockers induced severe gingival overgrowth. / A kalciumcsatorna-blokkoló gyógyszerek által indukált súlyos gingivahyperplasia konzervatív kezelése és megelozésének lehetoségei.

Összefoglaló. Bevezetés és célkituzés: A gingivahyperplasia a kalciumcsatorna-blokkoló gyógyszerek gyakori mellékhatása. Eredményeink közlésének célja, hogy bemutassuk, sebészi terápia nélkül, megfelelo egyéni szájhigiénia kialakításával és nem sebészi parodontalis terápiával milyen eredményt tudunk elérni az ínymegnagyobbodás kezelése során. Módszer: A Szegedi Tudományegyetem Fogorvostudományi Karának Parodontológiai Tanszékén 2015 és 2019 között 10 - 7 no és 3 férfi, átlagéletkoruk 56 év (50-69 év) volt -, kalciumcsatorna-blokkoló gyógyszer szedése során kialakuló, Grade III. ínyhyperplasiában szenvedo páciens kezelését végeztük konzervatív parodontalis módszerekkel, a gyógyszercsere mellozésével. A legfontosabb parodontalis értékeket rögzítettük, a tasakmélység, a vérzési index, a plakkindex és a fogmozgathatóság értékeit összegeztük vizsgálatunkban. A parodontium destrukciója mértékének megállapításához ortopantomogram és periapicalis röntgenfelvételeket értékeltünk. Eredmények: Minden parodontológiai paraméterben jelentos javulást tapasztaltunk. A nem sebészi parodontalis terápia eredményeként megszunt az elváltozás mind a 10 betegnél, és a szigorú fenntartó terápiának is köszönhetoen nem is újult ki. Következtetés: A nem sebészi terápia alkalmasnak bizonyult a súlyos gingivahyperplasia definitív kezelésére, ha az gingivitis vagy enyhe és középsúlyos parodontitis talaján alakult ki. Arra is következtethetünk az eredményeinkbol, hogy a gyógyszeres terápia megkezdése elott vagy azzal párhuzamosan parodontológiai terápiában részesülo páciensek nagy részénél a gingivahyperplasia - s ezzel a hosszú ideig tartó, drága kezelés - megelozheto lenne. Orv Hetil. 2022; 163(13): 506-512. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Gingival overgrowth is an adverse drug reaction in patients on long-term calcium channel blocker therapy. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of non-surgical pocket therapy in patients suffering from Grade III drug-related gingival overgrowth. METHOD: 10 (7 female and 3 male) patients (age between 50-69 years) diagnosed with severe, Grade III gingival overgrowth were treated in our department. Non-surgical periodontal therapy consists of improving of individual oral hygiene, scaling, polishing and subgingival mechanical debridement instrumentation. The main periodontal parameters (probing pocket depth, bleeding index, plaque index and mobility) were scored in this study. Bone loss was evaluated by orthopantomograms and periapical radiographs. Calcium channel blockers have not been replaced by any other medications during the whole course of periodontal treatment. RESULTS: Compared with baseline parameters, all scores improved after therapy. All patients showed decrease in the average probing pocket depth, deepest probing pocket depth, bleeding scores, plaque scores and tooth mobility. None of the patients needed further surgical treatment. In our followed-up patients, recurrence of gingival overgrowth has not been observed during the two-year meticulous supportive periodontal care in the patient group. CONCLUSION: Non-surgical periodontal treatment can be a potential definitive therapy in Grade III gingival overgrowth associated with gingivitis or moderate periodontitis. Periodontal screening and treatment before or simultaneously with the administration of calcium channel blockers can prevent the gingival enlargement in the majority of patient. These results outline the importance of the successful cause related periodontal therapy, started before or simultaneously with the administration of anithypertensive medications and in this way a series of further expensive therapies could be anticipated. Orv Hetil. 2022; 163(13): 506-512.

Oral findings in kidney transplant children and adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents undergoing kidney transplantation may present oral conditions after the procedure, but a few studies have recently described them. AIM: To describe the oral conditions of post-renal transplant children and adolescents. DESIGN: Two calibrated dentists examined all the participants by assessing caries experience, enamel defects, periodontal condition and soft tissue lesions. RESULTS: A total of 120 participants were included in the study, in which 63 (52.5%) were male and 57 (47.5%) were female, with a mean age of 12.78 ± 3.9 years. Among the participants, 104 (86.7%) showed at least one oral change directly related to kidney disease. The most frequent oral findings were enamel defect (49/120; 40.8%) and drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) (20/120; 16.7%). Gingival bleeding was observed on probing in 115 (95.8%) participants, whereas 69 (57.5%) presented dental calculus and 51 (42.5%) had caries experience. CONCLUSION: Gingival bleeding, enamel defects and DIGO were the most frequent oral findings in kidney transplant children and adolescents. The use of amlodipine and anticonvulsants was associated with DIGO, and there was a positive correlation between oral ulcers and use of everolimus.

Hepatocyte growth factor exhibits anti-fibrotic effects in an in vitro model of nifedipine-induced gingival overgrowth.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to establish an in vitro model of nifedipine-induced gingival overgrowth and characterize the anti-fibrotic effect of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) using this model. METHODS: Human gingival fibroblasts were cultured-treated with 0.1, 1, or 10 µg/mL nifedipine or 10 ng/mL IL-1ß + 0.1, 1, or 10 µg/mL nifedipine (0.1N, 1N, 10N, IL + 0.1N, IL + 1N, IL + 10N). Cell proliferation and levels of type I collagen, TGF-ß1, CCN2/CTGF, and α-SMA were measured 48 h after the simultaneous addition of 10 and 50 ng/mL HGF (10 and 50HGF) along with IL-1ß and nifedipine. Type I collagen was measured after administration of anti-HGF neutralizing antibody. RESULTS: Significant increases in type I collagen, TGF-ß1, and CCN2/CTGF were observed after treatment in the 1N and IL + 0.1N groups. Levels of type I collagen and CCN2/CTGF differed significantly between the IL + 0.1N group and the IL + 0.1N + 50HGF group. Production of type I collagen increased significantly following addition of anti-HGF antibody. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated the establishment of an in vitro model of nifedipine-induced gingival overgrowth by showing increased collagen levels. Experiments using this model suggested that HGF exerts anti-fibrotic effects.

Amlodipine Induced Gum Hypertrophy: A Rare Case Report.

BACKGROUND: DIGO or drug-induced gingival overgrowth occurs as a side effect of certain drugs. Until now, the etiology of drug-induced gingival overgrowth is not clearly understood. Among the calcium channel blockers, nifedipine has been shown to be most frequently associated with drug-induced gingival hyperplasia. Amlodipine is a comparatively newer calcium channel blocker that with a longer duration of action and lesser side effects as compared to nifedipine. There are only certain case reports of amlodipine-induced gum hyperplasia. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a case of amlodipine-induced gum hyperplasia in a 66-year-old hypertensive patient taking amlodipine at a dose of 5 mg once a day. There was significant regression of gum hypertrophy after substitution of amlodipine by Losartan. CONCLUSION: Amlodipine is one of the commonly prescribed antihypertensive drugs, and gingival hyperplasia is one overlooked side effect in patients taking amlodipine. Awareness of this potential side effect of amlodipine may be helpful to reduce the anxiety of patients and the cost of diagnostic procedures.

Lamotrigine-Induced Gingival Enlargement: An Older Problem Due to a Newer Drug - A Rare Case Report.

INTRODUCTION: Gingival enlargement (GE) due to anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) shows a high prevalence rate. However, lamotrigine, a newer AED, has not shown to induce GE. The present case report describes a rare case of GE in a patient with epilepsy under lamotrigine therapy for the past 3 years. CASE PRESENTATION: In this report, successful management of lamotrigine-influenced GE in a 24-year-old patient with epilepsy by gingivectomy followed by stringent oral hygiene protocol is presented. CONCLUSION: The present case report suggests that, even this newer AED can cause GE and the oral hygiene status of the patients could be an important triggering factor.

Treatment of calcium channel blocker-induced gingival overgrowth without modifying medication.

Gingival overgrowth is a common side effect of calcium channel blockers used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. While controversial, management includes discontinuing the calcium channel blocker. We report the case of a 66-year-old Japanese man with hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus who was diagnosed with severe periodontitis covering almost all the teeth. The patient had been on nifedipine (40 mg/day) and amlodipine (10 mg/day) medication for 5 years. With his physician's consent, nifedipine was discontinued during his treatment for periodontitis, which consisted of oral hygiene instructions and scaling and root planing on all areas. Gingivectomy was performed on the areas of hard fibrous swelling. Nifedipine was resumed during periodontal treatment when the patient's hypertension worsened. His periodontal scores improved when he resumed treatment. We report that significant improvement in gingival overgrowth can occur with basic periodontal treatment, surgery and sustained intensive follow-up without adjusting calcium channel blockers.

Antioxidants protect against gingival overgrowth induced by cyclosporine A.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the importance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on developing gingival overgrowth (GO) and then introduced the antioxidant strategy to prevent, or even reduce GO. BACKGROUND: Gingival overgrowth is a common side effect of the patients receiving cyclosporine A (CsA), an immune suppressant. Although it has been broadly investigated, the exact pathogenesis of the induced GO is still uncertain. METHODS: We cultured human primary gingival fibroblasts and used animal model of GO to investigate the ameliorative effects of antioxidants on CsA-induced GO. To examine the CsA-induced oxidative stress, associated genes and protein expression, and the overgrown gingiva of rats by using immunocytochemistry, confocal laser scanning microscopy, real-time PCR, ELISA, gelatin zymography, gingival morphological, and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS: We found for the first time that ROS was responsible for the CsA-induced oxidative stress and TGF-ß1 expression in human primary gingival fibroblasts, as well as the GO of rats. The antioxidants (oxidative scavenger of vitamin E and an antioxidative enzyme inducer of hemin) ameliorated CsA-induced pathological and morphological alterations of GO without affected the CsA-suppressed il-2 expression in rats. CsA-induced oxidative stress, HO-1, TGF-ß1, and type II EMT were also rescued by antioxidants treatment. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that CsA repetitively stimulating the production of ROS is the cause of CsA-GO which is ameliorated by treating antioxidants, including vitamin E and sulforaphane. Furthermore, the immunosuppressive effect of CsA is not interfered by antioxidant treatments in rats. This finding may thus help the clinician devise better prevention strategies in patients susceptible to GO.

Gingival overgrowth induced by anticonvulsant drugs: A cross-sectional study on epileptic patients.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of gingival overgrowth (hyperplasia) and to determine whether active molecules affect the severity of overgrowth in a group of epileptic patients. BACKGROUND: The effects of phenytoin on oral health have been explored in different studies, yet little information is available on other antiepileptic drugs. METHODS: Data were collected from 213 subjects of both sexes, from 5 to 80 years. Patients taking the same antiepileptic therapy for at least 1 year and meeting the inclusion criteria of the study (n = 162) were subjected to measurement of gingival overgrowth according to the modified Harris and Ewalt classification and O'Leary's plaque control record (OLR). Descriptive statistics were calculated. Data were analyzed using Pearson's r correlation coefficient and chi-square test. Significance level was set at 5%. RESULTS: The active drugs lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, and phenobarbital were significantly associated with gingival overgrowth in 61%, 71%, and 53% of cases, respectively, and phenytoin, valproic acid, and carbamazepine in 50%, 44%, and 32% of cases, respectively. CONCLUSION: Different antiepileptic molecules may be related to gingival overgrowth. In addition to phenytoin, also lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, and phenobarbital were associated with increased prevalence of gingival overgrowth. In the management of epileptic patients, dentists should take into account different drugs as possible causes for gingival overgrowth and warn for possible alternatives.

Influence of different anti-hypertensive drugs on gingival overgrowth: A cross-sectional study in a Turkish population.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the occurrence rate of drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) in patients treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and calcium channel blockers (CCBs) such as amlodipine, lercanidipine, and benidipine, as well as to assess the relationship of those mentioned above with medication variables and oral hygiene. METHODS: Sociodemographic details, DIGO, and clinical periodontal parameters were obtained from one hundred and thirty-one patients receiving ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and CCBs for a period of at least 2 years. RESULTS: The occurrence rate of DIGO was 19.6% in patients using CCB, 12.5% in the ARB group, and 7.5% in the ACE inhibitor group. In a subgroup analysis of CCBs, DIGO was found to be 31.8% in the amlodipine group, 13.3% in the lercanidipine group, and 7.1% in the benidipine group. While there was a significant relationship between amlodipine drug dosage and DIGO, no association was found between the duration of therapy and DIGO in all CCB subgroups. CONCLUSION: There was no difference between the groups in terms of DIGO. Duration of therapy and drug dosage did not affect the severity of DIGO in both ACE inhibitors and ARB groups.